Removing viruses from drinking water

ABSTRACT

A process of removing viruses from drinking water is disclosed. The process involves filtering drinking water, having a viral contaminant, through a layer of coarse sand; contacting the drinking water with a composite iron matrix; and purifying the drinking water by allowing the composite iron matrix to adsorb the viral contaminant for at least fifteen minutes. The major component of the composite iron matrix is an iron component, which is at least about 68% to about 92% iron by weight. Other components include manganese; cerium; carbon; phosphorous; sulfur; aluminum; silicon; chromium; copper; and zinc.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a U.S. National Stage of International Application No. PCT/US09/53983, filed in U.S. Receiving Office Aug. 17, 2009, which claims the benefit of provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/089,143 to Hussam, filed on Aug. 15, 2008, entitled “Removing Viruses from Drinking Water,” and provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/156,009 to Hussam, filed on Feb. 27, 2009, also entitled “Removing Viruses from Drinking Water,” which are both hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Contamination of drinking water by viruses is a serious health problem in many developing countries. A number of filtering techniques have been examined to either inactivate viruses or adsorb them to a solid support and thus remove them from the filtered water. Many of these filtration techniques involve the use of soils, gravel, or inorganic matter as the adsorption surface. Yet, they tend to be complex and not that efficient. Hence, what is needed a simple and efficient way of removing viruses from drinking water.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an example of a flow diagram of a process for removing viruses from drinking water.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a flow diagram of a process for making a composite iron matrix.

FIG. 3 shows exemplified data of the iron composition using an X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy.

FIG. 4 shows an example of a water filter system implementing the iron composition.

FIG. 5 shows an exemplified graph of results from serial dilutions.

FIG. 6 shows an exemplified graph of results from triplicate dilutions.

FIG. 7 shows an exemplified graph of results from a CIM experiment.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplified graph of results from a time dependency test.

FIG. 9 shows an exemplified graph of results from a CIM experiment between shaken vs. still.

FIG. 10 shows an exemplified graph of filtered water test results using the iron composition in Manikgong, Bangladesh.

FIG. 11 shows an exemplified graph of filtered water test results using the iron composition in Bhanga, Bangladesh.

FIG. 12 shows an exemplified graph of filtered water test results using the iron composition in Bera, Pabna, Bangladesh.

FIG. 13 shows an exemplified graph of filtered water test results using the iron composition in Nawabgonj, Bangladesh.

FIG. 14 shows an exemplified graph of the effect of soluble iron on arsenic.

FIG. 15 shows an exemplified graph of the effect of soluble phosphorous on arsenic.

FIG. 16 shows an exemplified graph of the removal efficiency of iron using the iron composition in a water filter.

FIG. 17 shows an exemplified graph of the removal efficiency of manganese using the iron composition in a water filter.

FIG. 18 shows an exemplified graph of the removal efficiency of magnesium using the iron composition in a water filter.

FIG. 19 shows an exemplified graph of the removal efficiency of silicon dioxide using the iron composition in a water filter.

FIG. 20 shows an exemplified graph of tubewell water test results of Kushtia, Bangladesh.

FIG. 21 shows an exemplified graph identifying the effect of flow rate on effluent As(total).

FIG. 22 shows an exemplified graph of blank filters showing arsenic breakthrough.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The claimed invention embodies a water filter and its components that remove viruses from drinking water. In addition, the water filter has the ability to remove a multitude of cations and anions, such as arsenic, manganese, etc.

Referring to the figures, FIG. 1 shows a process for removing viruses from drinking water. In general, the process comprises filtering drinking water, having a viral contaminant, through a layer of coarse sand; contacting the drinking water with a composite iron matrix; and purifying the drinking water by allowing the composite iron matrix to adsorb the viral contaminant for at least fifteen minutes.

As one embodiment of the present invention, an example of a virus is the MS2 bacteriophage (which may be also referred to herein as “phage”). MS2 bacteriophage is one of the simplest viruses known to exist. This RNA virus consists of a 3569 nucleotide RNA genome surrounded by a protein coat composed of 180 copies of the coat protein and one copy of a maturation protein, which is required for infection. The intact virion particle has an icosahedral structure similar to that of hepatitis A virus, polio virus, and influenzae virus.

The MS2 bacteriophage is non-pathogenic and is only known to infect the bacterium Escherichia coli (“E. coli”), allowing for use under biosafety-level 1 working conditions and easy disposal. Due to its non-pathogenicity, the MS2 bacteriophage is a commonly-used model for such viruses as hepatitis A, polio virus, and influenzae virus.

As such, it is within the concept of the present invention that additional, exemplified viral contaminants include, but are not limited to, hepatitis viral strains (e.g., hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C), polio virus, influenza viral strains (e.g., influenza A, influenza B, swine flu, etc.), etc.

Because the present invention is capable of removing viruses from drinking water, one skilled in the art may appreciate that the present invention is likely capable of removing bacteria (e.g., E. coli) and fungi as these latter two are often larger (in size) than viruses.

To purify the contaminated drinking water from as many viral contaminants as possible (including as much as possible), the contaminated drinking water needs to come in contact with an active ingredient. Additionally, the contaminated drinking water needs to remain in contact with the active ingredient for a minimum period of time to allow the active ingredient to adsorb the viral contaminants. For example, as an embodiment, the contaminated drinking water may be in contact with the active ingredient for at least fifteen minutes. In some instances, contact may need just only at least five minutes.

The active ingredient is a composite iron matrix (also referred to herein as “CIM” or “iron composition”). With a porosity of about 30% to about 40%, CIM is a mass that comprises a multitude of metal and nonmetal components. The largest component of the CIM (iron composition) is the iron component, with anywhere between at least about 68% to about 92% iron by weight.

Other components of CIM include, but not limited to, an iron component, a manganese component, a cerium component, a carbon component, a phosphorous component, a sulfur component, an aluminum component, a silicon component, a chromium component, a copper component and a zinc component.

The following identify exemplified ranges of what percentages by weight of the non-iron components may be found in CIM. For instance, the manganese component may be at least about 0.2% to about 3% manganese by weight. The cerium component may be at least about 4 μg per gram of the iron composition. The carbon component may be at least about 1% to about 5% carbon by weight. The phosphorous component of at least about 0.05% to about 2% phosphorous by weight. The sulfur component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 1000 μg per gram of the iron composition. The aluminum component of at least about 0.01% aluminum by weight. The silicon component of at least about 1% to about 2% silica by weight. The chromium component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 500 μg per gram of the iron composition. The copper component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 600 μg per gram of the iron composition. The zinc component of at least about 8 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 20 μg per gram of the iron composition.

After adsorption, the purified water may be further filtered. As an embodiment, the process may also include filtering the purified water through at least one additional layer of coarse sand, at least one layer of charcoal, and at least one layer of fine sand. As yet another embodiment, the process may further include filtering the purified water through at least one layer of gravel. These additional filtration layers may help remove particulates.

As a result of the purification (and possibly filtration), the purified water may have a pH somewhere in the range between about 7.4 to about 7.9.

In addition, CIM has the ability to remove and adsorb many cations and anions. For instance, CIM may remove arsenic, iron, sodium, calcium, copper, manganese, zinc, aluminum, lead, chromium, cadmium, barium, antimony, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, and/or chloride.

After passing through CIM, the purified water may be found to have, for example, less than about 0.25 mg of iron per liter; less than about 0.22 mg of manganese per liter; less than about 0.07 mg of aluminum per liter; about 5 to about 87 mg of calcium per liter; less than about 8 mg of magnesium per liter; less than about 0.087 mg of barium per liter; less than about 0.07 mg of nitrite per liter; and less than about 1 mg of phosphate per liter.

I. CIM Manufacturing

To make CIM, as shown in FIG. 2, the overall process includes washing and drying an iron component S205; creating an intermediate mass by (a) treating the iron component with one or more food grade acids or a water mixture, (b) drying the treated iron component, and (c) repeating steps (a) and (b) at least twice S210; and activating and stabilizing the intermediate mass by priming the intermediate mass with water S215.

The iron component serves as the starting material and comprises iron as the base metal and its derivatives. Nonlimiting examples of iron and its derivatives include low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel, Grey (˜150 to ˜350 MPa), Nodular (Ferritic), Grey (˜1 to ˜7), cast iron, pig iron, mild steel, construction grade steel, deformed bars, Ferro-manganese (containing by weight more than about 2% carbon), Ferro-chromium (containing by weight more than about 4% carbon), etc. One or some combination of these metals may be used. Each of these metals may have a fineness modulus of ˜0.05-˜6.0 mm in average dimension. Furthermore, the iron component may have an iron weight of at least about 68% to about 92%.

The metals may be washed thoroughly with water and placed in a water bath S205. Generally, the length of time in the water bath may be, for example, about 72 hours.

Any source of water or water sample may be used to wash the iron component (which may be iron-based raw materials). It should be noted that throughout the specification, the terms “water” and “water sample” are used interchangeably and mean freshwater (such as tap, distilled, deionized, well water, rainwater, lake, pond, river, stream, creek, potable, etc.). Additionally, the water should be standard quality assured.

After washing, the metals may be dried 5205. Drying may take place in the open for a certain amount of time (e.g., 72 hours, etc.), with a temperature ranging anywhere from ˜28° C. to ˜41° C. Drying may also be facilitated by applying heat (e.g., placing the iron component in an oven, heating and/or drying room, etc.).

To enhance controlled rusting, the metals may be treated (e.g., via spraying, douching, dipping, brushing, etc.) with water, a water mixture, or at least one food grade acid. The water mixture may contain a volume of water mixed with ˜1%-˜20% food grade acid. Food grade acid is defined to be an acid having a pH ranging about 2 to about 3.5. Examples of food grade acid include acetic acid (such as vinegar or citric acid), ascorbic acid, etc.

Food grade acid helps enhance hydrous ferric oxide formation for the complexation and precipitation of inorganic materials and/or soluble ions. Inorganic materials may include any arsenic specie. Soluble ions refer to metal and/or nonmetal ions, as well as cations and/or anions. Also, soluble ions can either be inorganic or organic.

As an alternative treatment method, instead of spraying with water or a water mixture, the above resulting material may be soaked in at least one food grade acid. Soaking should take place for ˜24 hours. One of ordinary skill in the art should recognize that other food grade acid application techniques, such as dipping or immersing the resulting material in food grade acid, pouring food grade acid over the resulting material, etc., may be used.

Additionally, other percentages of food grade acid may also be applied. For instance, ˜20%-˜100% vinegar (or ˜1%-˜5% acetic acid) may be used.

The water/water mixture/food grade acid application and drying operation may be repeated several times (e.g., 3-4 times). This repetitive process of treating the metals with some food grade acid, water mixture, or water, and then drying the treated metals creates the intermediate mass (also referred to herein as “composite iron granules” (CIG)) 5210. It is the CIG that is used to make CIM. Moreover, it is expected that the CIG comprises an iron component of at least about 68% to about 92% iron by weight.

Such operation can be automated by, for example, using any known means or mechanisms that allow for controlled treatment and drying. Meanwhile, the temperature may vary or be adjusted during this process. After several repetitions have been completed, the materials may be left in the open to dry.

With a uniform composition but with a different shape, CIG should be porous and lighter than the original iron component used. It is expected that CIG would have a fineness modulus of ˜0.005-˜6.0 mm in average dimension. Until ready for use, CIG may be stored in a dry facility or dry ventilated place.

CIG also has a high specific surface area. In particular, the specific surface area can be at least about 50 square meters per gram of oxide surface. CIG may contain metal hydroxides as one of the active surface complexing agents. Primarily, the metal hydroxide is hydrous ferric oxide mixed with hydrous manganese oxide. However, other metal hydroxides may include, for example, hydrous cerium oxide, hydrous chromium oxide, hydrous copper oxide, and hydrous zinc oxide.

After its creation, the intermediate mass may be activated and stabilized by priming it with water S215. As one embodiment of accomplishing this feat, the CIG may be placed in desired shape-forming container (e.g., a tube, earthen pitcher, plastic buckets, etc.). The CIG can either be placed by itself or between one or more layers of other components. Such components include, but are not limited to, sand, sand-charcoal, sand-brick chips and sand-gravel interface. Where multiple layers are used, each layer can be separated by a thin, porous material, such as porous nets, polyester clothes, etc.

Optionally, the CIG may first be conditioned to aid in the stabilization process prior to step S215. For example, CIG may be conditioned in a storage tank, such as a cross ventilated brick house, for about two weeks.

Water may then be reintroduced to the CIG by pumping water into the container having the CIG S215. It may be ideal for this container to have an outlet to control water flow. Generally, water flow control may be set at a rate of ˜10-˜100 L/hour for ˜2-˜7 days, or until the processed CIG in place becomes a porous solid. In one embodiment, CIG's porosity is ˜8%-˜20%. The density of CIG may be ˜2.3 g/cm³ to ˜3 g/cm³. After activation and stabilization, the final product is the CIM, which should now be ready for use.

The CIM (or again, iron composition) may comprise a multitude of elemental components. These components may include, but are not limited to, an iron component, a manganese component, a cerium component, a carbon component, a phosphorous component, a sulfur component, an aluminum component, a silicon component, a chromium component, a copper component and a zinc component.

The iron component may comprise at least about 68% to about 92% iron by weight.

The manganese component may comprise at least about 0.2% to about 3% manganese by weight.

The cerium component may comprise at least about 4 μg of cerium per gram of iron composition.

The carbon component may comprise at least about 1% to about 5% carbon by weight.

The phosphorous component may comprise at least about 0.05% to about 2% phosphorous by weight.

The sulfur component may comprise at least about 300 μg of sulfur per gram of iron composition to about 1000 μg of sulfur per gram of iron composition.

The aluminum component may comprise at least about 0.01% aluminum by weight.

The silicon component may comprise at least about 1% to about 2% silica by weight.

The chromium component may comprise at least about 300 μg of chromium per gram of iron composition to about 500 μg of chromium per gram of iron composition.

The copper component may comprise at least about 300 μg of copper per gram of iron composition to about 600 μg of copper per gram of iron composition.

The zinc component may comprise at least about 8 μg of zinc per gram of iron composition to about 20 μg of zinc per gram of iron composition.

Other components (e.g., barium, calcium, chloride, sodium, strontium, etc.) that may be found in the iron composition may be due in part from adsorption.

The synthetic CIM may be used in-place as the active material for removing toxic anions and cations. Alternatively, it may be removed from the container. If removed, it may be pulverized and used as the active material for removing inorganic and/or organic materials, including toxic and/or nontoxic cations and toxic and/or nontoxic anions, from water inside a filter cartridge or other container, or in a batch removal process.

II. Filtering Water Using CIM

A water product may be produced by filtering any water sample through a water filter containing layered mixture of active and inactive compounds.

Active compounds may include CIM and charcoal. Examples of charcoal include, but are not limited to, cooking wood and activated carbon. CIM can help remove toxic inorganic compounds (such as arsenic) from the water, whereas charcoal can help remove organic compounds, such as pesticide residues.

Inactive compounds may include sand, gravel, and brick chips. Examples of sand include, but are not limited to, coarse river sand, processed river sand, and fine sand. Commercial filter sand of different grades may also be used. The sand, as well as gravel and brick or basaltic stone chips, can serve as a flow stabilizer and disperser. In addition to serving as a coarse particulate filter, the sand, gravel, and/or brick chips can help provide mechanical stability for the water filter.

As shown in TABLE 1, the primary active material, CIM, can remove the inorganic arsenic species quantitatively through multiple possible reactions.

TABLE 1 Possible physicochemical reactions in different parts of the filtration process. Reaction Location Reactions Top layer: Oxidation of As(III) As(III) + O₂ ⁻ → As(IV) + H₂O₂ (Equations are balanced for reactive As(III) + CO₃ ⁻ → As(IV) + HCO₃ ⁻ species only) As(III)OH⁻ → As(IV) As(IV) + O₂ ⁻ → As(V) + O₂ ⁻ Top layer: Oxidation of soluble iron Fe(II) + O₂ → O₂ ⁻ + Fe(III)OH₂ ⁺ Oxidation of ferrous to ferric through Fe(II) + O₂ ⁻ → Fe(III) + H₂O₂ active oxygen species Fe(II) + CO₃ ⁻ → Fe(III) + HCO₃ ⁻ CIM hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) ═FeOH + Fe(III) + 3 H₂O → Fe(OH)₃ Fe(III) complexation and precipitation (s, HFO) + ═FeOH + 3 H⁺ (═FeOH is surface of hydrated iron) CIM - HFO surface ═FeOH + AsO₄ ³⁻ + 3 H⁺ → ═FeH₂AsO₄ + H₂O Surface complexation and ═FeOH + AsO₄ ³⁻ + 2 H⁺ → ═FeHAsO₄ ⁻ + H₂O precipitation of As(V) species ═FeOH + AsO₄ ³⁻ + H⁺ → ═FeAsO₄ ²⁻ + H₂O ═FeOH + AsO₄ ³⁻ → ═FeOHAsO₄ ³⁻ Top two buckets: Precipitation of M(III) + HAsO₄ ²⁻ → M₂(HAsO₄)₃ (s), M = Fe, Al other metals M(II) + HAsO₄ ²⁻ → M(HAsO₄) (s) and other Bulk precipitation of arsenic with arsenates soluble metal ions M = Ba, Ca, Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and other trace metals CIM and Sand interface ═FeOH + Si(OH)₄ → ═FeSiO(OH)₃ (s) + H₂O Reactions with iron surface and sand ═FeOH + Si₂O₂(OH)₅ ⁻ + H⁺ → ═FeSi₂O₂(OH)₅ can produce a porous solid structure (s) + H₂O with extremely good mechanical ═FeOH + Si₂O₂(OH)₅ ⁻ → ═FeSi₂O₃(OH)₄ ⁻ stability for the filter (s) + H₂O ═FeOHAsO₄ ³⁻ + Al(III) → ═FeOHAsO₄Al (s) ═FeOHAsO₄ ³⁻ + Fe(III) → ═FeOHAsO₄Fe (s) ═FeOH•HAsO₄ ²⁻ + Ca(II) → ═FeOH•HAsO₄Ca (s) All surface species indicated by ═X are solids.

Infrared spectroscopy (IRS) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) show that arsenate and arsenite form bidentate, binuclear surface complexes with ═FeOH (or ═FeOOH or hydrous ferric oxide, HFO) as the predominant species tightly immobilized on the iron surface. Also, inorganic As(III) species may be oxidized to As(V) species by the active O₂ ⁻ species, which can be produced by the oxidation of soluble Fe(II) with dissolved oxygen. Manganese (˜0.2% to ˜3% by weight) in CIM may act as a catalyst, and thus, catalyze oxidation of As(III) to As(V). Therefore, this process does not require pretreatment of water with external oxidizing agents, such as hypochlorite, potassium permanganate, ozone, etc.

To show that water alone can also act as the primary oxidant for cast iron, a dynamic electrochemical study may be performed. Corrosion of CIM may continuously generate hydrated iron oxides with a high specific surface area.

As(V) species (H₂AsO₄ ⁻ and HAsO₄ ²⁻) may then be removed by surface-complexation reactions with surface of hydrated iron (═FeOH) (or HFO). Corrosion on CIM may aid in continuously generated hydrated iron oxides with higher specific surface areas for binding arsenic species. Experiments may show that at least about 1.2 mg of arsenic can be removed by one gram of CIM. New ═FeOH may be generated in situ as more water is filtered. In addition to the removal of arsenic species, ═FeOH may also remove many other toxic species, such as chromate (Cr(VI)), cadmium (Cd(II)), zinc, lead, and other heavy metal ions.

Primary reactions include: ═FeOH+H₂AsO₄ ⁻→═FeHAsO₄ ⁻+H₂O(K=10²⁴)  (1)

and ═FeOH+HAsO₄ ²⁻→═FeAsO₄ ²⁻+H₂O(K=10²⁹)  (2).

These intrinsic equilibrium constants, K, indicate very strong complexation and immobilization of inorganic arsenic species. Excess Fe(II), Fe(III), and Ca²⁺, as well as other divalent cations, in groundwater are likely to enhance positive charge density of the inner Helmholtz plane of the electrical double layer. In effect, adsorption and complex formation through the double-layer charging are likely to increase. It is also likely that these excess ions specifically bind anionic arsenates to form strong surface complexes. The As(III) and As(V) removal process tends to be independent of the input arsenic concentration (i.e., a zero order reaction) to about 4000 μg/L. Input arsenic concentration includes As(III) and As(V) species.

Furthermore, cementation reactions tend to produce a porous high surface area. The insoluble spent materials appear very similar to natural HFO with a high capacity for arsenic removal.

Referring to FIG. 3, an X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) of the CIM is shown. The C 1s (top graph) denotes carbon, where the lower binding energy of C in the CIM is indicative of carbidic carbon. The O is (bottom graph) denotes metal oxides, with the dashed line denoting OH. In this latter graph, the lower binding energy state is a metal oxide.

With respect to the number of layers of active compounds, the water filter may contain at least one layer of CIM and at least one layer of charcoal. With respect to the number of layers of inactive compounds, the water filter may contain at least one layer of sand, at least one layer of brick chips, or a combination thereof.

Hence, as an example, water may be filtered using a water filter configuration as shown in FIG. 4 and explained in TABLE 2. This type of filtering involves two stages. In the first stage, contaminated water in a first bucket 402 with a cover 404 may pass through coarse sand 408, CIM 410 and/or brick chips (or alternatively, gravel) 412, creating a semi-decontaminated water product. The semi decontaminated water product can pass through a tap fitted with flow control junction 414 via a tube 416 and into a second bucket 420 that also has a cover 422. In the second stage, the semi-decontaminated water product may pass through more coarse sand 408, charcoal 424, fine sand 426 and/or brick chips (or alternatively, gravel) 412. After the second stage, the water product 428 is created. By opening the tap fitted with flow control junction 414 of the second bucket 420, the water product 428 may flow out and into a container 440. It is possible that after the second stage, the water product is also decontaminated, showing minimal to zero levels of bacteria.

TABLE 2 Materials used in filter Brief manufacturing method and Material Function and characteristics availability Filter specifications: Top Bucket (Red): 45 L, dia/height: 46/44 cm, 1.5 kg; Bottom Bucket (green): 23 L, 38/36, 1 kg. Shipping dimension: h/w/l 1.22/0.42/0/45 meter, Wt 56 kg. Flow rate: 20-30 L/hour continuous. Water quality meets WHO and Bangladesh standards. Life span >5 yrs Top bucket (32 kg)^((a)) Coarse river sand CRS is an inactive material CRS is obtained from local river, (CRS) - 10 kg wet used as coarse particulate thoroughly washed off clays and (F_(m) = 1.5-2, 95% filter, disperser, flow stabilizer, disinfected with bleach in large SiO₂, 5% other and to provide mechanical basins. metal oxides) stability. Groundwater with high soluble iron is oxidized and precipitate as Fe(OH)₃(s) in this media. CIM CIM is the active surface for CIM is manufactured from cast iron (5-10 kg) complexation and turnings obtained from local foundry. immobilization of inorganic Turnings are thoroughly washed, arsenic and many toxic metals dried and treated with food grade cations. The final product is acids to enhance HFO formation in a porous, lighter than original proprietary process. Finally, this turnings and produce less fines mass is primed with water, stabilized for filter stability. and hardened in the filter to a CIM. CRS and brick CRS and BC are inactive Same as top. BC are from local brick chips (BC): CRS - material and has similar manufacturer, thoroughly washed 10 kg wet, BC - functions. In combination and disinfected with bleach. 2.5 kg^((b)) these are used as a protection barrier for the free-flow junction outlet. Bottom bucket (25 kg) CRS - 10 kg wet Similar as above. This stage Same as above. retains residual iron leached from the first stage CIM as HFO. Filter life span can be estimated from the residual iron from top bucket. Wood charcoal WC is known to absorb WC is obtained from firewood used (WC) - 1 kg - organics (e.g., odor causing for cooking. Large quantities are small cubes compounds, pesticide residues, collected from local hotels and etc.). WC is passive to arsenic villagers. but imparts better tasting water. Fine river sand FRS is fine filtration media to Both obtained from local (FRS) - 9 kg wet catch any residual particulates. manufacturers, thoroughly washed and BC - 3.5 kg BC are used as stabilizing and disinfected with bleach. media and used as a protection barrier for the flow controller outlet. Other materials Plastic buckets - Container. Only food grade Local plastic molding industries 40 L high density (HDPP) buckets buckets retrofitted with top cover and are used. outlets for flow controller taps. Flow controllers Control flow to maintain Molded plastic or metal taps are optimum residence time for available in local hardware stores. best arsenic removal. This is Modified to fix flow rate. fixed in the factory. Metallic filter Support for the buckets. Made by local welders. stand ^((a))The top bucket may also contain a small perforated HDPP container (volume 1100 cm³) full of small briquettes and sand as a water splash guard to prevent displacement of top sand layer. ^((b))BC: silica 55%, alumina 30%, iron oxide 8%, magnesia 5%, lime 1% and others 1%

In another example, filtering water with CIM may also be achieved in one stage. On a small scale, CIM, charcoal and sand layers or any combination thereof may be placed in a single filter cartridge. The filter cartridge may be placed in a water filter.

The filter cartridge may also include a layer of brick chips or their equivalent (such as basaltic stone chips). Similarly, like above, sand may be any kind of sand, such as coarse river sand, processed river sand, and/or fine sand. Commercial filter sand of different grades may also be used.

It is possible that the number of layers is the same as that of the above two-filter system. However, as CIM is the active ingredient, it should be placed as one of the top layers within the filter cartridge to produce potable quality water.

As an embodiment, the water product may have an arsenic level of about 30 ppb or less. In some cases, the water product may have an arsenic level of about 10 ppb or less. In other cases, the water product may have an arsenic level of about 2 ppb or less.

As another embodiment, the water product may have a pH that ranges from about 7.4 to about 7.9. In some cases, the water product may have a pH of about 7.6.

Surprisingly, using CIM as the active compound produces high water quality content for the water product. The water quality may comprise, inter alia, less than about 0.25 mg of iron per liter of water product; less than about 0.22 mg of manganese per liter of water product; less than about 0.07 mg of aluminum per liter of water product; about 5 to about 87 mg of calcium per liter of water product; less than about 8 mg of magnesium per liter of water product; less than about 0.087 mg of barium per liter of water product; less than about 0.07 mg of nitrite per liter of water product; and less than about 1 mg of phosphate per liter of water product.

In addition to these benefits of removing toxic inorganic and organic species, the CIM is a natural nontoxic material. It can be disposed in the open and does not leach arsenic. CIM can also be used to make metallic iron. Because CIM can be recycled and reused again, filters including CIM can be considered “green.”

III. Experiments and Results

A. Viruses

Overall, a plaque assay may be used to determine how much phage was present in a sample. In this assay, solid agar plates are overlaid with soft top agar containing bacteria. Serial dilutions of virus-containing samples are prepared and added to the top agar. After overnight incubation, lysis of bacterial cells is visualized by the presence of a clear area (the plaque). The numbers of plaques are counted to determine the phage concentration (plaque forming units). In the first experiment, 1 g of CIM was combined with 10 ml water, and 100 μl of the appropriate phage dilution. The combination was then incubated for an hour and plated. There was a considerable decrease in the number of plaques on the plates, suggesting that the CIM is effective in removing viruses from water. A time dependency test was conducted with the CIM to determine the amount of time required to remove the virus. The virus was incubated for 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min Although there wasn't any decrease in the number of plaques for the 1, 5, and 10 min incubations, a considerable decrease was seen starting from the 15 min incubation plate. The 45 min and 60 min incubation plates had no plaques. These initial experiments conducted with the CIM show promising results and there appears to be a likely chance that the CIM is able to remove viruses from water.

More specifically, to determine the optimal amount of top agar for the plates, different amounts of top agar may be plated. The different amounts of top agar were 1.5, 3, 4.5, 6, 7.5, and 9. After overnight incubation, it was determined that 3 ml of top agar was the optimum amount of top agar. Next, to determine the right amount of bacteria, different amounts of bacteria may be plated. The different amounts were 1, 2.5, 10, 25, 100, and 1000 μl. After overnight incubation, it was determined that 25 μl of bacteria was the right amount.

Hence, as one embodiment of making the plaque assay, 3 ml of top agar, 25 μl of bacteria and 100 μl of bacteriophage were added to agar plates. After overnight incubation, they were analyzed to see the formation of plaques (tiny, white clearings). The plaques indicated that the bacteriophage have successfully lysed the bacteria.

Serial dilutions can be taken. In one example, 100 μl of 10-fold dilutions of the bacteriophage were used along with 10 μl of bacteria and 3 ml of top agar. They were plated and incubated overnight. As the dilutions increased, fewer plaques were seen, indicating that the greater the number of bacteriophage, the greater the number of plaques.

In order for the bacteria to work during the experiment, it is important for the bacteria to be growing in the exponential stage. Hence, the bacteria had to be incubated for at least 3 hours in TSB broth in a shaking incubator. The phage propagation assay was used to determine the best way to add phage to the bacteria. The first method was to add phage separately onto a plate already containing top agar and bacteria. The second method was to add the phage directly to the bacteria and top agar in glass tubes in a water bath and then plate them. It was determined that the phage should be added directly to the bacteria and top agar in glass tubes.

The following results from serial dilutions were obtained. Referring to FIG. 5, Plates 1-6 had too many plaques to count, indicating that there are too many phage. Plate 7 had 126 plaques, plate 8 had 22 plaques, plate 9 had 9 plaques, and plate 10 had 6 plaques. This experiment proved that as the phage become more dilute, the number of plaques decrease.

Triplicate dilution experiments were also performed to get more accurate results. Triplicates were done for dilutions 9-12. As indicated FIG. 6, for plate 9, there was 11, 5, and 12 phage. For plate 10, there was 18, 19, and 20 phage. For plate 11, there were 3, 1, and 1 phage. For plate 12, there was 2, 2, and 1 phage.

For the CIM experiments, the number of plaques on each plate may be counted after overnight incubation. As an example for the CIM experiment, 10 vials were filled with 10 ml water, 100 μl of appropriate phage dilution, and 1 g of CIM. They were shaken at room temperature for 1 hour, and 100 μl were added to 3 ml top agar and 25 μl of bacteria and then plated. After overnight incubation, they were analyzed for the number of plaques. If there is a significant decrease in the number of plaques in the plates, then it indicated that the CIM does have an effect on the bacteriophage. In this case, after the initial CIM experiments, it was determined that there was a considerable decrease in the number of plaques, indicating the CIM does have the ability to remove viruses from water.

The CIM experiments can also be tested with various lengths of incubation time. In one example, 10 vials were filled with 10 ml water, 100 μl of dilution 4 phage, and 1 g CIM. The vials were shaken at room temperature for 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min After shaking, 100 μl of the vial liquid were added to 3 ml of top agar and 25 μl of bacteria. Such combination was plated on petri dishes and incubated overnight. After overnight incubation, the plates were analyzed for the difference in the number of plaques.

In the CIM experiments with pond water, 10 vials may be filled with 10 ml of pond water, 100 μl of various dilution phage, and 1 g of CIM. The vials may be shaken at room temperature for 60 minutes. Thereafter, 100 μl of the vial liquid was added to 3 ml top agar and 25 μl bacteria. The liquid was plated on petri dishes and incubated overnight. As above, the plaques were also analyzed to determine the number of plaques in each plate. This experiment is more representative of water wells, where the water has numerous contaminants.

The following results in the CIM experiments were obtained. Referring to FIG. 7, vial 4 (with dilution 2 phage) had 43 plaques, vial 5 (with dilution 3 phage) had 96 plaques, vial 6 (with dilution 4 phage) had 3 plaques, vial 7 (with dilution 5 phage) had 21 plaques, vial 8 (with dilution 6 phage) had 0 plaques, and vial 10 (with dilution 8 phage) had 1 plaque. In the absence of CIM, dilutions 2 through 6 had too many plaques to count. These results show that there is almost a 99.995% decrease in the number of plaque forming units compared to the serial dilutions. Also, these results show that there is considerable reason to believe that CIM has an effect in removing viruses from water.

A time dependency test was also conducted. Referring to FIG. 8, there were 24 plaques for 5 min incubation time, 139 plaques for 10 min incubation time, 1 plaque for 15 min incubation time, and 0 plaques for 30 min, 45 min, and 60 min incubation time. These results suggest that under the tested conditions it requires about 15 minutes for the CIM to remove the virus.

In CIM experiments dealing with whether vials were to be shaken or held still, the following results, as indicated in FIG. 9, were obtained. For the shaken vials, dilution 3 had too many plaques to count, dilution 4 had 66 plaques, dilution 3 had 0 plaques, and dilution 6 had 2 plaques. For the plates that were still for 60 minutes, all the plates had too many plaques to count. The experiment demonstrates that the virus was required to come in contact with the CIM in order for it to be removed from solution.

B. Cations and Anions

The embodied filters were tested in areas with high arsenic levels in groundwater. Moreover, filter efficacy was tested using real groundwater containing varied concentrations of arsenic, iron, other inorganic species and water quality parameters. In one example, the Kushita district of Bangladesh served as a testing ground from 2000 to 2005. Filters were monitored for active used by householders from 2.3 to 4.5 years. TABLE 3 displays results of this exemplified experiment.

TABLE 3 Results of Six Different Monitored Filters Filter 1 Filter 2 Filter 3 Filter 4 Filter 5 Filter 6 Parameters* Fatic Courtpara Zia Alampur Kaliskhnpur Juniadah Years in use 2.32 4.5 2.66 3.6 4.4 2.5 Water yield 67,760 125,000 77,840 104,960 128,480 72,960 (L) Number of 10 110 12 14 56 8 measurements As (Total) - 32 ± 7 155 ± 7  243 ± 9  410 ± 15 1139-1600 2423 ± 87  Input, ppb As (Total), <2 7 ± 1 7 ± 1  8 ± 2 7 ± 2 8 ± 4 Filter, ppb Fe(Total), 20.7 ± 0.6 4.85 ± 0.25 7.35 ± 0.3  10.86 ± 0.56 1.53 ± 0.08  0.6 ± 0.03 Input, ppm Fe(Total),  0.22 ± 0.02 0.228 ± 0.04  0.25 ± 0.03 0.242 ± 0.03 0.25 ± 0.05 0.26 ± 0.03 Input, ppm Cost, Taka/L 0.031 0.016 0.026 0.02 0.016 0.028 (1 Taka = ~$0.016) *Flow rate ~20-~30 L/hour. Other water chemistry parameters are similar to that in TABLE 4. Consumption: ~60-~180 L/day. As(total) was measured by ASV on a thin film gold electrode validated by IAEA interlaboratory comparison stdies at SDC/MSUK, Kushtia, Bangladesh and with Graphite Furnace AA at GMU Chemistry Department. Iron was measured spectrophotometrically at SDC/MSUK. Cost per liter decreases as more water is filtered.

As part of the parameters, the flow rate for the tested filters varied from ˜20 to ˜30 L/hour. Other water chemistry parameters are similar to that in TABLE 4. Consumption was measured at ˜60 to ˜180 L/day. As(total) was measured by Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV) on a thin film gold electrode. Iron was measured spectrophotometrically.

TABLE 4 Water quality comparison from SONO Filter, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) World Health Organization (WHO) and Bangladesh Standards SONO US EPA WHO Bangladesh Influent Filter Constituent (MCL) Guideline Standard^((a)) Groundwater Water^((b)) Arsenic (total), mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.05  0.005-4.000^((c)) 0.003-0.020 Arsenic (III), mg/L    0.005-2.000^((d)) <0.005 Iron (total), mg/L 0.3 0.3 0.3 (1.0) 0.2-20.7 0.19 ± 0.10 pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-7.5  7.6 ± 0.1 Sodium, mg/L 200 <20.0 19-25 Calcium, mg/L  75 (200) 120 ± 16  5-87 Manganese, mg/L 0.05 0.1-0.5 0.1 (0.5) 0.04-7.0  0.04-0.5  Aluminum, mg/L 0.05-0.2  0.2 0.1 (0.2) 0.015-0.15  0.11 ± 0.02 Barium, mg/L 2.0 0.7 1.0  <0.30 <0.082 Chloride, mg/L 250 250 200 (600) 3-12  4.0-20.0 Phosphate, mg/L 6 <12.0  0.9 ± 0.12 Sulfate, mg/L 100 0.3-12.0 12 ± 2  Silcate, mg/L — 10-26  18 ± 6  ^((a))Bangladesh standard values are given as maximum desirable concentration with maximum permissible concentration in parentheses. ^((b))SONO filters. ICP multielement measurements of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Se, Ag, Sb, Cr, Mo, and Ni show concentrations below the USEPA and WHO limits at all times. All other measurements show average of semi-continuous measurement of more than 394,000 L of groundwater filtered by inventor and Environmental Technology Verification for Arsenic Mitigation (EVTAM) in at least eight different water chemistries in different regions of Bangladesh. Water chemistry parameters were recorded for 23 metals, 9 anions, redox potential - E_(h), pH, Temp, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and turbidity for hundreds of samples. All prescribed parameters passed the drinking water standards of WHO and Bangladesh. ^((c))One tubewell at Bheramara was found to contain As(total) ~4 mg/L. The filtered water had ~0.007 mg/L. This well was later capped by the Government. ^((d))In some wells, As(III) concentrations exceeded ~90% of the As(total).

TABLE 4 summarizes the results of more than 590,000 L of groundwater filtered in ten experimental filters located throughout Bangladesh. Of these, 577,000 L were tested by Sono Diagnostic Center (SDC)/Manob Sakti Unnayan Kendro (MSUK) at six locations as described in TABLE 3. Additionally, 17,334 L were tested by ETVAM at various locations throughout Bangladesh (such as Bera-Pabna, Hajigong-Comilla, Manikgang-Dhaka, Faridpur and Nawabgang-Rajshahi). As can be seen, filtered water parameters met and surprisingly exceeded USEPA, WHO and other international water quality standards.

FIG. 10 shows results of a groundwater field test using a CIM water filter in Manikgong. Influent As(total) was measured at about 420 ppb to about 644 ppb, with As(III) at about 212 ppb to about 586 ppb. The highest influent phosphate, PO₄ ³⁻, level was measured at about 9.8 mg/L. The highest influent silicate level was measured at about 38.1 mg/L. The highest influent sulfate level was measured at about 30.8 mg/L.

FIG. 11 shows results of a groundwater field test using a CIM water filter in Bhanga. Influent As(total) was measured at about 300 ppb to about 383 ppb, with As(III) at about 184 ppb to about 278 ppb. The highest influent phosphate level was measured at about 1.0 mg/L. The highest influent silicate level was measured at about 32.4 mg/L. The highest influent sulfate level was measured at about 1.0 mg/L.

FIG. 12 shows results of a groundwater field test using a CIM water filter in Bera, Pabna. Influent As(total) was measured at about 215 ppb to about 396 ppb, with As(III) at about 193 ppb to about 302 ppb. Influent Fe(total) averaged at about 15 mg/L. Effluent Fe(total) was found to be about 0.113 mg/L. Influent phosphate was found to be about 3.5 mg/L. Influent silicate level was found to be about 34 mg/L.

FIG. 13 shows results of a groundwater field test using a CIM water filter in Nawabgonj. Influent As(total) was measured at about 778 ppb to about 1239 ppb, with As(III) at about 740 ppb to about 877 ppb. Influent Fe(total) averaged at about 5.17 mg/L. Effluent Fe(total) was found to be about 0.046 mg/L. Influent phosphate was found to be about 2.1 mg/L. Influent silicate level was found to be about 34 mg/L.

Most toxic As(III) species from groundwater can be removed without chemical pretreatment below the detection limit (˜2 μg/L). It can also remove manganese, which is now implicated as a toxic trace metal. Also, the filter may produce filtered water with low concentrations in Ca and Fe, and thus making the filtered water a soft water that is lighter to taste and pleasant to drink.

It remains known that the performance of most filtration technologies can be affected by naturally occurring soluble iron and phosphate. For example, as shown in FIG. 14, soluble iron can enhance the retention of arsenic in the filter through co-precipitation and complex formation. Results were obtained from fields where soluble iron in influent water was above the potable limit.

Quite surprisingly, in the all cases (including data in TABLE 3), the filter with CIM removed not only arsenic, but also the soluble iron by ˜99% and made the water potable.

However, a similar effect cannot be said of phosphate. Phosphate is often considered the competing ion for arsenate. In addition, phosphate has the potential to negatively affect the performance of the filter. The effect of phosphate on the effluent As(total) can be seen in FIG. 15. There appears to be no clear effect of phosphate on the removal capacity of arsenic. Moreover, it appears that phosphate does not affect the performance of the filter with CIM, even at ˜40-˜50 mg/L concentration.

Besides effects on the CIM water filter, the CIM water filter can also remove various species. For instance, FIG. 16 shows the removal efficiency of Fe. FIG. 17 shows Mn removal efficiency. FIG. 18 shows Mg removal efficiency. FIG. 19 shows SiO₂ removal efficiency.

In another example, 165 filters were tested in Hajigong, Comilla, Bangladesh in a span of 1 year by a total of about 3000 family members and 300 arsenicosis patients. There, the tubewell water has an arsenic total count of about 600 to about 700 ppb, where >50% is in the form of As(III). The As (total) in filtered water showed <2 ppb (˜70%), <10 ppb (˜20%), <30 ppb (˜10%) (n=145). The filtered water did not result in an As count above 30 ppb. It is important to note that the year long experiment experienced no change in flow rate. Additionally, it is important to note that no maintenance was required for 12 months.

In combination with CIM, the sand, charcoal and an embodied arrangement of the materials, the filter may remove arsenic, iron, manganese and other inorganic species to a potable water quality. FIG. 20 shows typical test results in which 25,000 L of tubewell water containing 1139-1600 μg/L of As (total) was filtered to produce potable water with less than 14 μg/L As (Total) until a detection limit (such as 2 μg/L) is reached. This progressive decrease in effluent arsenic is unique to the CIM filter. In addition, recent environmental technologies verification programs for arsenic mitigation (ETVAM) also confirmed these results when compared to Alumina (ALCAN), Cerium Hydroxide Ion Exchange Resin (READ-F), and Microfine Iron Oxide (SIDCO) based filters. This unique property is attributable to the generation of new complexation sites on CIM through in situ iron oxidation and surface chemical reactions, as shown in TABLE 1.

Arsenic complexation reaction also indicates zero order kinetics with respect to the influent As (total) concentration. This order generally means high arsenic removal capacity that is independent of input As(total) (up to ˜4000 μg/L). It may also imply that no breakthrough of arsenic for the filter's life. The filter life span can be calculated by assuming a worst-case scenario where the filter looses 500 μg/L of iron from the CIM at about 200 L/day of use. At such loss, it may take about 274 years to loose 1000 g of iron when 20,000,000 L water is filtered.

The life span of this exemplified filter can be estimated using data on a Freundlich isotherm with CIM:

$\begin{matrix} {{\log\left( \frac{X}{M} \right)} = {{\log\; K} + {\left( {1/n} \right)\log\; C_{f}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

X represents the μg/L of As adsorbed. M represents the g of CIM used. C_(f) represents the free arsenic in μg/L. Adsorption capacity may be K=139.3. Adsorption intensity may be n=−1.9.

It was found to take about 14 years to reach the 50 μg/L MCL breakthrough from influent water containing ˜300 μg/L As(total) at 80 L/day usage rate and a filter with 10,000 g of CIM. Although these calculations appear disparate, it shows that the filter will work for years before breakthrough occurs.

The MCL breakthrough can be further extended by the co-precipitation of arsenate by HFO produced from Fe(II) present in groundwater, even at low concentrations (e.g., ˜1.0 mg/L).

FIG. 21 shows that the filter can even work at a flow rate of ˜60 L/hr without breakthrough. However, due to unknown water chemistry and varied As(total) in groundwater, the flow rate may be fixed at ˜20 to ˜30 L/hr to ensure long term use and effluent As(total) below 30 μg/L.

In contrast, blank filters (i.e., filters without CIM) tend to have a breakthrough at ˜88 L of groundwater, as shown in FIG. 22. Here, data in this figure were based on groundwater having a composition of (1) As(III): 300 μg/L; (2) As(total): 996 μg/L; and (3) Fe(II): 1.0 mg/L. For the blank filter having only sand, the filtered water had a temperature of 27.3° C., pH of 7.6±0.1, TDS of 210±6 (mg/L) and E_(h) of 158±6 mV vs. NHE. For the blank filter having only sand, brick and charcoal, the filtered water had a temperature of 25.7° C., pH of 7.9±0.1, TDS of 208±12 (mg/L) and E_(h) of 148±6 mV vs. NHE. Additionally, the latter blank filter showed no detectable total Fe (II+III) in the filtered water.

These experiments further demonstrate that plain sand filters broke through the MCL almost instantaneously. A low iron concentration (e.g., ˜1.0 mg/L) in groundwater may be selected for this study to ensure HFO precipitate from this iron would not bias the results by co-precipitation and complexation of arsenic species.

In other experiments conducted by Shaw Environmental Inc. (Shaw) for the EPA and National Academy of Engineering (NAE), over a two-week test period, influent and effluent metal concentrations, anion concentrations and water quality data parameters were measured over an average flow rate of 190 ml per minute and with the average volume of water treated at about 66 L per ˜8 hours. Overall, Shaw deemed the water quality to be excellent, where the water was clear and colorless.

Analyzing the metal concentrations (total arsenic, As(III), As(V), iron, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, sodium and silicon), Shaw tested total (as opposed to dissolved) concentrations using a Perkin-Elmer Optima 2100 Series Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) instrument with an Optical Emission Spectrometer. Shaw performed arsenic speciation by using a Solid Phase Extraction Cartridge (SPC)—Waters Corporation Sep-Pak Plus Accell Plus QMA cartridges 37-55 μm—followed by an analysis of As(III)-bearing filtrate by ICP. Results of the metal analysis are shown in TABLE 5.

TABLE 5 Metals concentration analysis Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L) Metal Average Std. Dev. Average Std. Dev. Arsenic (total) 0.340 0.031 0.007 0.003 Arsenic (III) 0.047 0.060 0.001 0.001 Arsenic (V) 0.293 0.045 0.006 0.003 Iron 2.014 0.112 0.008 0.012 Calcium 34.36 1.46 41.99 4.37 Aluminum 0.230 0.037 0.066 0.017 Magnesium 11.74 0.46 7.81 1.34 Sodium 33.58 0.90 32.96 1.49 Silicon 2.456 0.394 1.556 0.480

It was determined that the average removal efficiencies for As(total), As(III), and As(V) were 98%, 98%, and 98% respectively. Although the experiment involved the addition of equal concentrations of As(III) and As(V) to the feed water, As(III) oxidized rapidly to As(V) at the influent sample location.

Anion concentration were also analyzed. Using a Dionex ICS 2500 ion chromatograph (IC), Shaw determined the following anion concentrations for sulfate, chloride, nitrate and phosphate. As shown in TABLE 6, tested anion concentrations in the treated effluent water decreased slightly when compared to the influent test water.

TABLE 6 Anions concentration analysis Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L) Anion Average Std. Dev. Average Std. Dev. Sulfate 75.879 7.302 66.483 6.357 Chloride 95.926 10.735 90.327 24.089 Nitrate 2.191 0.300 1.581 0.715 Phosphate 0.579 0.205 0.404 0.103

Water quality parameters were also tested. As shown in TABLE 7, these include pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Chlorine, Turbidity and Alkalinity. Other water quality parameters, as shown in TABLE 8, were also tested. These include Hardness, Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Particle count in the 1-10 micron range, Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). However, unlike TABLE 7, Shaw only collected two samples for the parameters in TABLE 8.

TABLE 7 Water quality parameters analysis Water quality Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L) parameter Average Std. Dev. Average Std. Dev. pH 6.34 0.33 7.39 0.26 DO, mg/L 2.30 0.50 3.51 0.26 Chlorine, mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Turbidity, NTU 1.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 Alkalinity, mg/L 2.0 0.7 23.3 22.6

According to Shaw, the DO levels in the influent water rose from the tank DO level as it was pumped into the test unit. The DO level continued to increase in the treatment unit. Furthermore, the alkalinity in the treated effluent water increased by an order of magnitude only in some cases. Meanwhile, the CIM water filter removed ˜80% of the influent test water turbidity.

TABLE 8 Miscellaneous water quality parameters analysis Water quality Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L) parameter Average Std. Dev. Average Std. Dev. Hardness, mg/L 118.2 5.9 127.6 0.6 TOC, mg/L 0.1759 0.14 0.3604 0.3 Particle count, 8,752 6,029 7,246 9,103 count/ml (1-10 μm) TSS, mg/L 5 4 3 3 TDS, mg/L 276 25 259 68

IV. Maintenance

The claimed invention generally does not require special maintenance. However, where a filter uses the CIM technology, like that shown in FIG. 4, the upper sand layers should be changed when the apparent flow rate decreases (e.g., <10 L/hour). Experiments show that flow rate may decrease ˜20%-˜30% per year if groundwater has high iron (e.g., >5 mg/L) due to formation and deposition of natural HFO in sand layers. The sand layers (˜0.5-˜1 inch thick) can be removed, washed and reused or replaced with new sand. This half-yearly maintenance may be necessary, especially where groundwater may contain more than 5 mg/L of soluble iron.

The presence of soluble iron and formation of HFO precipitate is a common among all sorts of filtration technologies. Occasional water flow disturbance may also occur due to the accumulation of sand/HFO deposits in the tap nozzles, which can be removed by detaching and cleaning the tap in a flowing water stream. Alternatively, the nozzle end can be gently poked with a sewing needle to remove such deposits. However, such problem is not a significant one.

Tubewells may be used to extract groundwater to avoid drinking surface water that may be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. However, pathogenic bacteria may still be found in drinking water due to unhygienic handling practices and in shallow tubewells, such as near unsanitary latrines and ponds. To kill pathogenic bacteria and eliminate or minimize thermo tolerance coliform (ttc) count, hot water (e.g., 5 L) may be poured into each filter on a routine basis (e.g., daily, weekly, bi-monthly, monthly, quarterly, etc.) or on random intervals. As one embodiment, this protocol may be followed weekly. Alternatively, the filters may be washed with diluted bleach. The filters with CIM are not known to foster pathogenic bacteria on their own.

Where water appears visibly turbid, this sign indicates that the filters may not have been used for a while, or that the flow-filter may be malfunctioning. To resolve this problem, the filter may be flushed by filtering water through several times (e.g., 3-4 times).

The overall maintenance process can take about 20 to 30 minutes. Because the filter has no breakthrough, the active media does not generally require any processing (e.g., backwashing, regeneration, etc.). It is expected that the filter can produce potable water for at least five years.

With respect to managing residue, the total available leaching protocol (TALP) may be determined on used sand and CIM-Fe. TALP is similar to EPA's toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), except that the samples were ground to find powder prior to leaching at two different pH values. The procedure may be followed with rainwater (which may be adjusted to a pH of ˜7), where the primary mode of transport of water soluble species takes place during a rainy season. As shown in TABLE 9, the results indicate that the spent material is completely nontoxic with <16 μg/L As(total), which is about 300 times less than the EPA limit

TABLE 9 Trace element distribution of leachates from filter spent material by TALP Conc. Conc. Conc. Conc. Conc. (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at pH = 7 pH = 4 pH = 7 pH = 7 pH = 4 (Sand + (Sand + (Sand + Iron) Element (Sand) (Sand) Iron) Iron) Rainwater Al 0.028 0.02 0.049 0.014 0.02 As <0.016 <0.016 <0.016 0.025 <0.016 (EPA = 5) Ba 0.002 0.007 0.006 0.009 0.008 Ca 2.65 8.39 4.89 8.13 4.00 Cu 0.005 0.018 0.007 0.008 0.002 Fe 0.02 0.031 0.041 0.051 0.016 Mg 0.2 1.03 0.519 0.831 0.52 Mn 0.013 0.081 0.005 0.047 0.002 Ni 0.002 0.009 0.003 0.005 0.004 K 0.82 1.26 0.608 0.527 0.62 Na 2.64 0.750 3.35 1.85 7.2 Sr 0.006 0.017 0.014 0.02 0.012 Sn 0.007 0.011 0.003 0.006 0.003 Zn 0.011 0.038 0.013 0.021 0.024 Note: The “<” sign indicates the instrumental detection limit for ICP-AES and specified as the concentration below the detection limit (bdl). For As, the bdl is 0.016 mg/L or 16 ppb. Other metals - Pb, Cd, Se, Ag, Sb, Cr and Mo were either below the method detection limit or the drinking water limit. Sand:Iron = 50:50. Iron is CIM-Iron.

Similar results have also been reported by EVTAM using EPA's TCLP methods. Further tests on backwash of filter waste show that the filters with CIM produced the lowest concentrations of As(total) (˜93 mg/kg) in comparison to commercial filters based on activated alumina (˜377 mg/kg), cerium hydroxide based ion exchange resin (˜105 mg/kg), and microfine iron oxide (˜2339 mg/kg) in solid waste. These values fall below EPA limits of 5000 mg/kg. The arsenic species in the filter's used sand and CIM should be in the oxidized form and be firmly bound with insoluble solid CIM. This characteristic is similar to a self-contained naturally occurring compound in the earth's crust. In another perspective, it is almost like disposing soil on soil. Furthermore, according to the NAE, used CIM may be characterized as “non detectable and non hazardous (limit 0.50 mg/L)” by the TCLP.

The foregoing descriptions of the embodiments of the claimed invention have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. They are not intended to be exhaustive or be limiting to the precise forms disclosed, and obviously many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. The illustrated embodiments were chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the claimed invention and its practical application to thereby enable others skilled in the art to best utilize it in various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated without departing from the spirit and scope of the claimed invention. In fact, after reading the above description, it will be apparent to one skilled in the relevant art(s) how to implement the claimed invention in alternative embodiments. Thus, the claimed invention should not be limited by any of the above described example embodiments.

In addition, it should be understood that any figures, graphs, tables, examples, etc., which highlight the functionality and advantages of the claimed invention, are presented for example purposes only. The architecture of the disclosed is sufficiently flexible and configurable, such that it may be utilized in ways other than that shown. For example, the steps listed in any flowchart may be reordered or only optionally used in some embodiments.

Further, the purpose of the Abstract is to enable the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the public generally, and especially the scientists, engineers and practitioners in the art who are not familiar with patent or legal terms or phraseology, to determine quickly from a cursory inspection the nature and essence of the claimed invention of the application. The Abstract is not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the claimed invention in any way.

Furthermore, it is the applicants' intent that only claims that include the express language “means for” or “step for” be interpreted under 35 U.S.C. §112, paragraph 6. Claims that do not expressly include the phrase “means for” or “step for” are not to be interpreted under 35 U.S.C. §112, paragraph 6.

A portion of the claimed invention of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent invention, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A process of removing viruses from drinking water comprising: a. filtering drinking water, having a viral contaminant, through a layer of coarse sand; b. contacting the drinking water with a composite iron matrix; and c. purifying the drinking water by allowing the composite iron matrix to adsorb the viral contaminant for at least fifteen minutes; and wherein the composite iron matrix comprises: i. an iron component of at least about 68% to about 92% iron by weight; ii. a manganese component of at least about 0.2% to about 3% manganese by weight; iii. a cerium component of at least about 4 μg per gram of the iron composition; iv. a carbon component of at least about 1% to about 5% carbon by weight; v. a phosphorous component of at least about 0.05% to about 2% phosphorous by weight; vi. a sulfur component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 1000 μg per gram of the iron composition; vii. an aluminum component of at least about 0.01% aluminum by weight; viii. a silicon component of at least about 1% to about 2% silica by weight; ix. a chromium component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 500 μg per gram of the iron composition; x. a copper component of at least about 300 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 600 μg per gram of the iron composition; and xi. a zinc component of at least about 8 μg per gram of the iron composition to about 20 μg per gram of the iron composition.
 2. The process according to claim 1, further including filtering the purified water through at least one additional layer of coarse sand, at least one layer of charcoal, and at least one layer of fine sand.
 3. The process according to claim 2, further including at least one layer of gravel.
 4. The process according to claim 1, wherein the viral contaminant is an MS2 bacteriophage.
 5. The process according to claim 1, wherein the purified water has a pH of about 7.4 to about 7.9.
 6. The process according to claim 1, wherein the purified water comprises: a. less than about 0.25 mg of iron per liter; b. less than about 0.22 mg of manganese per liter; c. less than about 0.07 mg of aluminum per liter; d. about 5 to about 87 mg of calcium per liter; e. less than about 8 mg of magnesium per liter; f. less than about 0.087 mg of barium per liter; g. less than about 0.07 mg of nitrite per liter; and h. less than about 1 mg of phosphate per liter. 